| 词组 | punctuation |
| 释义 | punctuation The first section of this entry deals with the punctuation of ordinary sentences. For information on how to punctuate direct speech and how to mention titles and other words, see the sections on direct speech and titles and quoted phrases later in this entry. ◊ full stop You start a sentence with a capital letter. You put a full stop (.) at the end of a sentence, unless it is a question or an exclamation. It's not your fault. Cook the rice in salted water until just tender. In American English, the punctuation mark (.) is called a period. ◊ question mark If a sentence is a question, you put a question mark (?) at the end. Why did you do that? Does any of this matter? He's certain be be elected, isn't he? Note that you put a question mark at the end of a question, even if the words in the sentence are not in the normal question order. You know he doesn't live here any longer? People occasionally do not put a question mark at the end of a sentence in question form if, for example, it is really a request. Would you please call my office and ask them to collect the car. ◊ WARNING You put a full stop, not a question mark, after a reported question. He asked me where I was going. I wonder what's happened. ◊ exclamation mark If a sentence is an exclamation, that is, something said with strong emotion, you put an exclamation mark (!) at the end. In informal writing, people also put an exclamation mark at the end of a sentence which they feel is exciting, surprising, or very interesting. How awful! What an aroma! It's tremendous! Your family and children must always come first! We actually heard her talking to them! In American English, the punctuation mark (!) is called an exclamation point. ◊ comma You must put a comma (,) • after or in front of a vocative Jenny, I'm sorry. Thank you, Adam. Look, Jenny, can we just forget it? • between items in a list, except ones separated by 'and' or 'or' We ate fish, steaks and fruit. ...political, social and economic equality. The men hunted and fished, kept cattle and sheep, forged weapons and occasionally fought amongst themselves. ...educational courses in accountancy, science, maths or engineering. • between three or more descriptive adjectives in front of a noun, without 'and' ...in a cool, light, insolent voice. Eventually the galleries tapered to a long, narrow, twisting corridor. • after a name or noun group, before a description or further information ...Carlos Barral, the Spanish publisher and writer. ...a broad-backed man, baldish, in a fawn coat and brown trousers. • between the name of a place and the county, state, or country it is in. Note that a comma is usually put after the county, state, or country as well, unless it is at the end of a sentence. She was born in Richmond, Surrey, in 1913. There he met a young woman from Cincinnati, Ohio. • after or in front of an adjective which is separate from the main part of the sentence, or after a separate participle She nodded, speechless. I left them abruptly, unwilling to let them have anything to do with my project. Shaking, I crept downstairs. • before a relative clause which does not specify someone or something She wasn't like David, who cried about everything. The only decent room is the living room, which is rather small. He told us he was sleeping in the wood, which seemed to me a good idea. • before a question tag That's what you want, isn't it? You've noticed, haven't you? ◊ optional comma You can put a comma, for emphasis or precision, • after the first of two qualitative adjectives used in front of a noun We had long, involved discussions. ...a tall, slim girl with long, straight hair. ...a lovely, sunny region. Note that 'young', 'old', and 'little' do not usually have commas in front of them. ...a huge, silent young man. ...a sentimental old lady. ...a charming little town. • after or in front of a word or group of words which adds something to the main part of the sentence. Note that if you put a comma in front of the word or group, you should also put one after it, unless it comes at the end of the sentence. In 1880, John Benn founded a furniture design trades journal called 'The Cabinetmaker'. Obviously, it is not always possible. There are indeed stylistic links between my work and William Turnbull's, for instance. They were, in many ways, very similar in character and outlook. The ink, surprisingly, washed out easily. Note that long groups of words are usually separated with commas. He is, with the possible exception of Robert de Niro, the greatest screen actor in the world. A comma is put after or in front of an adverbial if its meaning is otherwise likely to be misunderstood. 'No,' she said, surprisingly. Mothers, particularly, don't like it. • in front of 'and', 'or', 'but', or 'yet', when giving a list or adding a clause ...a dress-designer, some musicians, and half a dozen artists. The task of changing them all seems monumental, and is probably hopeless. ...if you are prey to fear, stress, or anxiety. This would allow the two countries to end hostilities, but neither of them seems in a mood to give way. ...remarks which shocked audiences, yet also enhanced her reputation as a woman of courage. • after a subordinate clause When the fish is cooked, strain off the liquid and add this to the flour and margarine. Even if the boxer survives surgery, he may be disabled permanently. Although the law of the land made education compulsory for all European children, François's father decided not to send him to school. It is usually best to put a comma after a subordinate clause, although many people do not put commas after short subordinate clauses. Note that you do not normally put a comma in front of a subordinate clause, unless it contains something such as an afterthought, contrast, or exception. Don't be afraid of asking for simple practical help when it is needed. Switch that thing off if it annoys you. The poor man was no threat to her any longer, if he ever really had been. He was discharged from hospital, although he was homeless and had nowhere to go. If you do put a comma in front of a clause, you should also put a comma after it if it does not come at the end of the sentence. This is obviously one further incentive, if an incentive is needed, for anybody who needs to take slimming a little more seriously. • in front of a participle which is separate from the main part of the sentence Maurice followed, laughing. Marcus stood up, muttering incoherently. • after a noun being used in front of someone's name ...that marvellous singer, Jessye Norman. She had married the gifted composer and writer, Paul Bowles. ◊ no comma You do not put a comma • in front of 'and', 'or', 'but', and 'yet' when these words are being used to link just two nouns, adjectives, or verbs Eventually they had a lunch of fruit and cheese. ...when they are tired or unhappy. • between a qualitative adjective and a classifying adjective, or between two classifying adjectives ...a large Victorian building. ...a medieval French poet. • after the subject of a clause, even if it is long Few in the audience noticed the late arrival of a man in a wheelchair. Even this part of the Government's plan for a better National Health Service has its risks and potential complications. Indeed, the degree of backing for the principle of the community charge surprised ministers. • in front of a 'that'-clause or a reported question His brother complained that the office was not business-like. Georgina said she was going to bed. She asked why he was so silent all the time. • in front of a relative clause which specifies someone or something I seem to be the only one who can get close enough to him. Happiness is all that matters. The country can now begin to fashion a foreign policy which serves national interests. ◊ semi-colon The semi-colon (;) is used in formal writing to separate clauses that are closely related and could be written as separate sentences, or that are linked by 'and', 'or, 'but', or 'yet'. I can see no remedy for this; one can't order him to do it. He knew everything about me; I knew nothing about his recent life. He cannot easily reverse direction and bring interest rates down; yet a failure to do so would almost certainly push the economy into recession. It is also sometimes used between items in a list. ...when working with the things he seemed to like: their horse, Bonnie; the cart he brought the empty bottles home in; bits of old harness; tools and things. ◊ colon The colon (:) is used • in front of a list or explanation To be authentic these garments must be of natural materials: cotton, silk, wool and leather. Nevertheless, the main problem remained: what should be done with the two murderers? • between two main clauses that are connected, mainly in more formal writing It made me feel claustrophobic: what, I wonder, would happen to someone who was really unable to tolerate being locked into such a tiny space? Be patient: this particular cruise has not yet been advertised. • after introductory headings Cooking time: About 5 minutes. • in front of the second part of a book title ...a volume entitled Farming and Wildlife: A Study in Compromise. A colon is also sometimes used in front of quotes. See below at direct speech. ◊ dash The dash ( -- ) is used • in front of a list or explanation The poor need simple things -- building materials, clothing, household goods, and agricultural implements. The Labour Government had just nationalised the basic industries -- coal, rail and road transport. ...another of Man's most basic motives -- commercialism. • after and in front of a group of words or a clause which adds something to the main sentence but could be removed Many species will take a wide variety of food -- insects, eggs, nestlings and fruit -- but others will only take the leaves of particular trees. Number seventeen was -- of all things -- underground. It is our view that very few important materials in the world -- perhaps none -- will become unduly scarce. • in front of an adverbial, clause, or other group of words, for emphasis I think Rothko was right -- in theory and practice. Let Tess help her -- if she wants help. I'm beginning to regret I ever made the offer -- but I didn't seem to have much option at the time. My family didn't even know about it -- I didn't want anyone to know. Mrs O'Shea, that's wonderful -- really it is. ◊ WARNING Dashes are not used in very formal writing. ◊ brackets Brackets ( ), also called parentheses, are used after and in front of a word, group of words, or clause which adds something to the main sentence, or explains it, but could be removed. This is a process which Hayek (a writer who came to rather different conclusions) also observed. Normally he had the last word (at least in the early days). A goat should give from three to six pints (1.7 to 3.4 litres) of milk a day. This is more economical than providing heat and power separately (see section 3.2 below). Note that full stops, question marks, exclamation marks, and commas go after the second bracket, unless they apply only to the words in the brackets. I ordered two coffees and an ice cream (for her). We had sandwiches (pastrami on rye and so on), salami, coleslaw, fried chicken, and potato salad. In the face of unbelievable odds (the least being a full-time job!) Gladys took the six-hour exam -- and passed. ◊ square brackets Square brackets [ ] are used, usually in books and articles, when supplying words that make a quotation clearer or comment on it, although they were not originally said or written. Mr Runcie concluded: 'The novel is at its strongest when describing the dignity of Cambridge [a slave] and the education of Emily [the daughter of an absentee landlord].' ◊ apostrophe You use an apostrophe • in front of an 's' added to a noun or pronoun, or after a plural noun ending in 's', to show a relationship such as possession. See entries at ↑ ...my friend's house. ...someone's house. ...friends' houses. • in front of contracted forms of 'be', 'have', and modals, and between 'n' and 't' in contracted forms with 'not'. See entry at ↑ I'm terribly sorry. I can't see a thing. • in front of 's' for the plurals of letters and, sometimes, numbers Rod asked me what grades I got. I said airily, 'All A's, of course.' There is a time in people's lives, usually in their 40's and 50's, when they find themselves benefiting from financial windfalls. • in front of two figures referring to a year or decade ...souvenirs from the '68 campaign. ...the grim subject that obsessed him throughout the '60s and the early '70s. An apostrophe sometimes indicates that letters are missing from a word. Often the word is never written in full in modern English. For example, 'o'clock' has been reduced from 'of the clock', but it is never written in full. She left here at eight o'clock this morning. Martin had only recently recovered from a bout of 'flu. Often people stop using an apostrophe at the beginning of a shortened word. For example, people nowadays usually write 'phone', not ''phone'. ◊ WARNING You do not use an apostrophe in front of the 's' of a plural word like 'apples' or 'cars'. Also, you do not use an apostrophe in front of the 's' of the possessive pronouns 'yours', 'hers', 'ours', and 'theirs'. ◊ hyphen When you cannot fit the whole of a word at the end of a line, you can put part of the word and a hyphen ( - ) on one line and the rest of the word on the next line. If the word is clearly made up of two or more smaller words or elements, you put the hyphen after the first of these parts. For example, you would write 'wheel-' on one line and 'barrow' on the next, 'inter-' on one line and 'national' on the next, 'listen-' on one line and 'ing' on the next. Otherwise, you put the hyphen at the end of a syllable. For example, you could write 'compli-' on one line and 'mentary' on the next, and 'infor-' on one line and 'mation' on the next. ◊ WARNING It is best not to break a word if the word is a short one, or if it would mean writing just one or two letters at the end or beginning of a line. For example, it would be better to write 'unnatural' on the next line rather than writing 'un-' on one line and 'natural' on the next. If the word already has a hyphen, because it is a compound, put the second part of the word on the next line. For example, with 'short-tempered' and 'self-control', you would put 'tempered' and 'control' on the next line. For information on the use of the hyphen in compound words, see entry at Spelling. ◊ slash or stroke A slash, stroke, or oblique (/) is used • between two words or numbers that are alternatives Write here, and/or on a card near your telephone, the number of the nearest hospital with a casualty ward. ...the London Hotels Information Service (telephone 629 5414/6). • between two words describing something that is in fact two things, as in 'a washer/drier' or 'a clock/radio' Each apartment includes a sizeable lounge/diner with colour TV. A slash or stroke is also sometimes used to mark where a line of poetry ends when you are quoting part of a poem without putting each line on a separate line. 'Sweet and low, sweet and low,/Wind of the western sea.' ◊ direct speech You put inverted commas (' ' or " "), also called quotation marks or quotes, at the beginning and end of direct speech. You start the direct speech with a capital letter. 'Thank you,' I said. "What happened?" Note that British writers use both single and double inverted commas (' ' and " "), but American writers tend to use double inverted commas (" "). If you put something like he said after the direct speech, you put a comma in front of the second inverted comma, not a full stop. However, if the direct speech is a question or an exclamation, you put a question mark or an exclamation mark instead. 'Let's go,' I whispered. 'We have to go home,' she told him. 'What are you doing?' Sarah asked. 'Of course it's awful!' shouted Clarissa. If you then give another piece of direct speech said by the same person, you start it with a capital letter and put inverted commas round it. 'Yes, yes,' he replied. 'He'll be all right.' If you put something like he said within a sentence in direct speech, you put a comma after the first piece of direct speech and after 'he said', and you start the continuation of the direct speech with inverted commas. Note that you do not give the first word of the continuation a capital letter, unless it would have one anyway. 'Frankly darling,' he murmured, 'it's none of your business.' 'Margaret,' I said to her, 'I'm so glad you came.' If you put something like he said in front of the direct speech, you put a comma in front of the direct speech and a full stop, question mark, or exclamation mark at the end of it. She added, 'But it's totally up to you.' He smiled and asked, 'Are you her grandson?' People sometimes put a colon in front of the direct speech, especially to indicate that what follows is important. I said: 'Perhaps your father was right.' A dash is used to indicate that someone who is speaking hesitates or is interrupted. 'Why don't I -- ' He paused a moment, thinking. 'It's just that -- circumstances are not quite right for you to come up just now.' 'Oliver, will you stop babbling and -- ' 'Jennifer,' Mr Cavilleri interrupted, 'the man is a guest!' A line of dots (usually three) is used to show that someone hesitates or pauses. 'I think they may come soon. I...' He hesitated, reluctant to add to her trouble. 'Mother was going to join us but she left it too late...' Note that sometimes what a person thinks is directly quoted in front of a comma or after it, rather than in inverted commas. My goodness, I thought, Tony was right. I thought, what an extraordinary childhood. When you are writing a conversation, for example in a story, you start a new line for each new piece of direct speech. ◊ WARNING When the direct speech takes up more than one line, you do not put an opening inverted comma at the beginning of each line, only at the beginning of the direct speech. If you are giving more than one paragraph of direct speech, you put inverted commas at the beginning of each paragraph but not at the end of any paragraph except the last one. ◊ titles and quoted phrases When you are mentioning the title of a book, play, film, etc, you can put inverted commas round it, although people quite often do not, especially in informal writing. In books and articles, titles are often written without inverted commas, or in italics (sloping letters). The titles of newspapers, especially, are not usually written in inverted commas. ...Robin Cook's novel 'Coma'. ...Deighton's most recent novel, Spy Hook. When you are mentioning a word, or quoting a few words that someone said, you put the word or words in inverted commas. The Great Britain team manager later described the incident as 'unfortunate'. Bragg says that all 'post-16 students' -- she dislikes the term 'sixth-formers' -- will follow a course of study designed to equip them with 'core skills'. He has always claimed that the programme 'sets the agenda for the day'. Note that you do not usually put the punctuation of your sentence within the inverted commas, in British English. Mr Wilson described the price as 'fair'. What do you mean by 'boyfriend'? However, when people are quoting a whole sentence, they often put a full stop in front of the closing inverted comma, rather than after it. You have a saying, 'Four more months and then the harvest.' If they want to put a comma after the quote, the comma comes after the closing inverted comma. The old saying, 'A teacher can learn from a student', happens to be literally true. In American English, a full-stop or comma is put in front of the closing inverted comma, not after it. The judge said the man had "richly earned a sentence of incarceration." There was a time when people were divided roughly into children, "young persons," and adults. If you are quoting someone who is also quoting, you need to use a second set of inverted commas. If you begin with a single inverted comma, you use double inverted commas for the second quote. If you begin with double inverted commas, you use single inverted commas for the second quote. 'What do they mean,' she demanded, 'by a "population problem"?' "One of the reasons we wanted to make the programme," Raspiengeas explains, "is that the word 'hostage' had been used so often that it had lost any sense or meaning." Note that people sometimes put inverted commas round a word or expression which they think is inappropriate. The chest of one fourteen-year-old was a mass of scar tissue where a 'friend' had jokingly poured petrol over him and set fire to it. A line of dots (usually three) is used to show that you are giving an incomplete quotation, for example from a review. 'A creation of singular beauty...magnificent.' Washington Post. ◊ italics You will see italics (sloping letters) used in printed books and articles, for example to mention titles or foreign words, and emphasize or highlight other words. Italics are not used in this way in handwriting. When mentioning titles, use inverted commas, or have no special punctuation at all. When mentioning foreign words, use inverted commas. In informal writing, you can underline words to emphasize them. ◊ other uses of punctuation For the use of punctuation marks in writing abbreviations, dates, numbers, measurements, and times, see entries at ↑ |
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