◊ GRAMMAR
A verb is a word which is used with a subject to say what someone or something does, what they are, or what happens to them. This entry explains the different verb forms and then gives information about different types of verbs.
◊ verb forms
Regular verbs have the following forms:
• a base form, for example 'walk'
• an '-s' form, for example 'walks'
• an '-ing' form or present participle, for example 'walking'
• a past form, for example 'walked'
In the case of regular verbs, the past form is used for the past tense and is also used as the past participle. However, with many irregular verbs there are two past forms:
• a past tense form, for example 'stole'
• a past participle form, for example 'stolen'
See entry at ↑
Sometimes there is a spelling change when the '-s', '-ing', and '-ed' endings are added, as shown in the table on the next page.
Note that:
• In the case of the following verbs ending in 'e', you just add '-ing' in the normal way to form the '-ing' form. For example, the '-ing' form of 'age' is 'ageing'.
age, agree, disagree, dye, eye, free, hoe, knee, referee, singe, tiptoe
• You do not double the final consonant of verbs ending in 'w', 'x', or 'y' when forming the '-ing' form or past form.
row -- rowing -- rowed, box -- boxing -- boxed, play -- playing -- played
• In British English, you double the final 'l' of verbs like 'travel' and 'quarrel', even though the last syllable is not stressed.
travel -- travelling -- travelled, quarrel -- quarrelling -- quarrelled
You do not double the final 'l' in American English.
• In British English, and sometimes in American English, the final consonant of the following verbs is doubled, even though the last syllable is not stressed.
hiccup, kidnap, program, worship
Note that the final 'p' of 'handicap' is also doubled.
◊ uses of verb forms
The base form is used for the simple present tense, the imperative, and the infinitive, and is used after modals.
I hate him.
Go away.
He asked me to send it to him.
He asked if he could take a picture.
The '-s' form is used for the third person singular of the simple present.
She likes you.
The '-ing' form or present participle is used for continuous tenses, '-ing' adjectives, verbal nouns, and some non-finite clauses. See entries at ↑
The attacks are getting worse.
...the increasing complexity of industrial societies.
She preferred swimming to tennis.
'So you're quite recovered now?' she said, smiling at me.
The past form is used for the simple past tense, and for the past participle of regular verbs.
I walked down the garden with him.
She had walked out without speaking.
The past participle is used for perfect tenses, passive tenses, '-ed' adjectives, and some non-finite clauses. See entries at ↑
Two countries have refused to sign the document.
It was stolen weeks ago.
He became quite annoyed.
The cargo, purchased all over Europe, included ten thousand rifles.
See also entry at ↑
◊ intransitive verbs
Some verbs do not take an object. These verbs are called intransitive verbs. Intransitive verbs often describe actions or events which do not involve anyone or anything other than the subject.
Her whole body ached.
The gate squeaked.
Some intransitive verbs always or typically have a preposition after them.
I'm relying on Bill.
The land belongs to a rich family.
These are some of the commonest:
amount to, apologize for, aspire to, believe in, belong to, consist of, depend on, hint at, hope for, insist on, lead to, listen to, object to, pay for, qualify for, refer to, relate to, rely on, resort to, sympathize with, wait for
You will find information on what preposition to use after a particular verb in many of the entries for individual words in this book.
◊ transitive verbs
Some verbs describe events that must, in addition to the subject, involve someone or something else. These verbs are called transitive verbs. They take an object, that is, a noun group which is put after the verb.
He closed the door.
Some of the women noticed me.
Some transitive verbs always or typically have a particular preposition after their object.
The police accused him of murder.
The judge based his decision on constitutional rights.
He just prevented the bottle from toppling.
These are some of the commonest:
accuse of, attribute to, base on, dedicate to, deprive of, entitle to, mistake for, owe to, pelt with, prevent from, regard as, remind of, return to, rob of, subject to, swap for, trust with, view as
Some transitive verbs have a complement after their object when used with a particular meaning, as in 'They make me angry'. See section on object complements in entry at ↑
Most transitive verbs can be used in the passive. However, a few, such as 'have', 'get', and 'let', are rarely or never used in the passive. See entry at ↑
◊ reflexive verbs
A reflexive verb is a transitive verb which is normally or often used with a reflexive pronoun such as 'myself', 'himself', or 'themselves' as its object. The following verbs are reflexive verbs:
amuse, apply, blame, compose, cut, distance, dry, enjoy, excel, exert, express, help, hurt, introduce, kill, prepare, restrict, strain, teach
Sam amused himself by throwing branches into the fire.
'Can I borrow a pencil?' ---'Yes, help yourself.'
The verbs 'busy', 'content', and 'pride' must be used with a reflexive pronoun.
He had busied himself in the laboratory.
He prides himself on his tidiness.
◊ WARNING
Reflexive pronouns are not used as much in English as in some other languages when talking about actions that you normally do to yourself. You only use a reflexive pronoun to emphasize that a person is doing the action himself or herself.
She washed very quickly and rushed downstairs.
Children were encouraged to wash themselves.
◊ delexical verbs
A number of very common verbs can be used with an object referring to an action simply to indicate that the action takes place. They are called delexical verbs. The verbs most commonly used in this way are:
do, give, have, make, take
The noun which is the object of the delexical verb is usually countable and singular, although it can sometimes be plural.
We were having a joke.
She gave an amused laugh.
They took regular walks along cart-tracks.
In a few cases, an uncount noun is used after a delexical verb.
We have made progress in both science and art.
A nurse is taking care of him.
For information on the nouns used with delexical verbs, see entries at ↑
◊ transitive or intransitive
Many verbs are transitive when used with one meaning and intransitive when used with another meaning.
She runs a hotel.
The hare runs at enormous speed.
It is often possible to use a verb intransitively because the object is known or has already been mentioned.
I don't own a car. I can't drive.
Both dresses are beautiful. I can't choose.
Note that even verbs which are almost always followed by a direct object can occasionally be used intransitively, when you are making a very general statement.
Some people build while others destroy.
She was anxious to please.
◊ ergative verbs
An ergative verb can be used either transitively to focus on the person who performs an action, or intransitively to focus on the thing affected by an action.
When I opened the door, there was Laverne.
Suddenly the door opened.
The driver stopped the car.
The big car stopped.
Many ergative verbs refer to change or movement:
age, balance, begin, bend, bleach, break, burn, burst, change, close, continue, crack, darken, decrease, diminish, disperse, double, drop, drown, dry, empty, end, fade, finish, grow, improve, increase, move, open, quicken, rest, rock, rot, shake, shatter, shrink, shut, slow, spin, split, spread, stand, start, steady, stick, stop, stretch, swing, tear, thicken, turn, widen, worsen
I shattered the glass.
Wine bottles had shattered all over the pavement.
Jefferson spun the globe slowly on its axis.
The wheels of the car spun furiously.
Verbs which refer to cooking are usually ergative verbs.
She made some soup and roasted a chicken.
The stake burnt more quickly than the pig roasted.
So are verbs which refer to driving or controlling vehicles.
The boys reversed their car and set off down the road we had just climbed.
The jeep reversed at full speed.
The following verbs are used ergatively with one or two nouns only:
catch (an article of clothing), fire (a gun, rifle, pistol), play (music), ring (a bell, the alarm), show (an emotion such as fear, anger), sound (a horn, the alarm)
He had caught his sleeve on a splinter of wood.
The hat caught on a bolt and tore.
I rang the bell.
The bell rang.
The following ergative verbs usually have an adverbial after them when they are used intransitively:
clean, freeze, handle, mark, polish, sell, stain, wash
I like the new Range Rover. It handles beautifully.
Wool washes well if you treat it carefully.
◊ reciprocal verbs
A reciprocal verb describes an action which involves two or more people doing the same thing to each other. The people are referred to together using a plural subject and the verb is used intransitively.
Their children are always fighting.
He came out and we hugged.
To emphasize that the participants are equally involved in the action, 'each other' or 'one another' can be put after the verb group.
We embraced each other.
It was the first time they had touched one another.
The following reciprocal verbs can be followed by 'each other' or 'one another':
cuddle, embrace, engage, fight, hug, kiss, marry, match, meet, touch
With some verbs it is necessary to use a preposition, usually 'with', in front of 'each other' and 'one another'.
You've got to be able to communicate with each other.
Third World countries are competing with one another for a restricted market.
The following reciprocal verbs can be followed by 'with':
agree, alternate, argue, clash, coincide, collide, combine, communicate, compete, conflict, contend, contrast, converse, co-operate, correspond, disagree, engage, fight, integrate, mate, merge, mix, quarrel, struggle, talk
You can also use 'against' after 'compete' and 'fight', and 'to' after 'correspond' and 'talk'. You use 'from' after 'part' and 'separate'. You use 'to' after 'relate'.
Note that 'engage' and 'fight' can be used either transitively or with a preposition.
◊ verbs with object or prepositional phrase
A small group of verbs can be followed by either an object or a prepositional phrase. For example, you can say either 'He tugged her sleeve' or 'He tugged at her sleeve'. There is usually little difference in meaning between using the verb on its own and using a preposition after it.
Her arm brushed my cheek.
Something brushed against the back of the shelter.
We climbed the mountain.
I climbed up the tree.
The following verbs can be used with an object or a prepositional phrase:
boo (at), brush (against), check (on), distinguish (between), enter (for), fight (against), fight (with), gain (in), gnaw (at), hiss (at), infiltrate (into), jeer (at), juggle (with), mock (at), mourn (for), nibble (at), play (against), rule (over), sip (at), sniff (at), tug (at), twiddle (with)
◊ ditransitive verbs
Some verbs can have two objects: a direct object and an indirect object. These verbs are called ditransitive verbs. The indirect object usually refers to the person who benefits from the action or receives something as a result.
When the indirect object is a short noun group such as a pronoun, or 'the' and a noun, you often put it in front of the direct object.
I gave him the money.
Sheila showed the boy her new bike.
I taught myself French.
Note that you do not usually put a preposition in front of the indirect object when it is in this position. For example, you do not say 'I gave to him the money'.
Instead of putting the indirect object in front of the direct object, it is possible to put it in a prepositional phrase that comes after the direct object. It is normal to use this prepositional structure when the indirect object is long, or when you want to emphasize it.
He handed his driving licence to the policeman.
I've given the key to the woman who lives in the house next door to the garage.
I bought that for you.
You must use a preposition when the direct object is a personal pronoun and the indirect object is not.
He got a glass from the cupboard, filled it and gave it to Atkinson.
Then Stephen Jumel bought it for his wife.
If both the direct object and the indirect object are personal pronouns, you should use a preposition in writing. A preposition is also often used in conversation.
He gave it to me.
Save it for me.
However, some people do not use a preposition in conversation. Sometimes the direct object follows the indirect object, and sometimes the indirect object follows the direct object. For example, someone might say either 'My mother bought me it' or 'My mother bought it me'.
With the following verbs, you use 'to' to introduce the indirect object.
accord, advance, award, deal, feed, forward, give, grant, hand, lease, lend, loan, mail, offer, owe, pass, pay, post, quote, read, rent, repay, sell, send, serve, show, teach
He lent my apartment to a friend for the weekend.
We picked up shells and showed them to each other.
You can sometimes use 'to' to introduce the indirect object of 'tell'. See entry at ↑
With the following verbs, you use 'for' to introduce the indirect object.
book, build, buy, cash, cook, cut, design, fetch, find, fix, get, guarantee, keep, make, mix, order, paint, pick, pour, prepare, reserve, save, secure, set, spare, win
They booked a place for me.
She painted a picture for her father.
With the following verbs, you can use either 'to' or 'for' to introduce the indirect object, depending on the meaning you want to express.
bring, leave, play, sing, take, write
Mr Schell wrote a letter the other day to the New York Times.
Once, I wrote a play for the children.
With a few ditransitive verbs, the indirect object almost always comes in front of the direct object rather than being introduced by 'to' or 'for'.
allow, ask, begrudge, bet, cause, charge, cost, deny, draw, envy, forgive, grudge, promise, refuse
The radio cost me three quid.
It was time for one of them to go and meet a man who had promised him a job.
Note that in passive sentences either the direct object or the indirect object can become the subject. For example, you can say either 'The books will be sent to you next week' or 'You will be sent the books next week'.
A seat had been booked for him on the 6 o'clock flight.
I was given two free tickets.
Most of the verbs listed above as ditransitive verbs can be used with the same meaning with just a direct object.
He left a note.
She fetched a jug from the kitchen.
A few verbs can be used with a direct object referring to the person who benefits from the action, or receives something.
ask, envy, feed, forgive, pay, teach
I fed the baby when she awoke.
I forgive you.
◊ link verbs
A link verb is a verb that is followed by a complement rather than an object. The complement gives more information about the subject, and can be an adjective or a noun group.
The link verbs are:
appear, be, become, come, feel, get, go, grow, keep, look, pass, prove, remain, seem, smell, sound, stay, taste, turn
I am proud of these people.
She was getting too old to play tennis.
For information on which link verbs are used with which kind of complement, see entry at ↑
Some link verbs, such as 'appear', 'prove', and 'seem', are often followed by 'to be' and an adjective, instead of immediately by an adjective.
Mary was breathing quietly and seemed to be asleep.
The task of inspecting it proved to be exacting and interesting.
◊ compound verbs
Compound verbs consist of two words which are normally linked by a hyphen.
It may soon become economically attractive to mass-produce hepatitis vaccines.
Somebody had short-changed him.
Send it to the laundry. Don't dry-clean it.
He chain-smoked cheap cigars.
Only the second part of a compound verb changes to show tense and number.
dry-clean -- dry-cleans -- dry-cleaning -- dry-cleaned, force-feed -- force-feeds -- force-feeding -- force-fed
◊ other verbs
For information on verbs followed by a reported clause, see section on report structures in entry at ↑