| 释义 |
Contents overview + - Verbs Introduction + - irregular verbs + - active verb tenses present, future and past; simple, progressive and perfect tenses and time table of active verb tenses
+ - progressive structures + - non-progressive verbs verbs not often used in progressive ('continuous') forms common non-progressive verbs progressive and non-progressive uses can see, etc -ing forms
progressive with always, etc + - perfect structures construction terminology and use
+ - subjects, objects and complements + - verbs with two objects indirect and direct objects: I gave Jack the keys. indirect object last: I gave the keys to Jack. two pronouns: Lend them to her. wh-questions: Who did you buy it for? passives: I've been given a picture. structures with donate, push, carry, explain, suggest, describe and take one object or two
+ - verbs with both active and passive meanings + - verb + object + complement: You make me nervous. + - linking verbs: be, seem, look, etc common linking verbs adjectives after linking verbs other uses change: become, get, grow, etc other verbs followed by adjectives
+ - two-part verbs: phrasal verbs verb + adverb particle: get back, walk out idiomatic meanings: break out; turn up phrasal verbs with and without objects word order with objects
+ - two-part verbs: prepositional verbs verb + preposition: listen to; look at idiomatic meanings: look after, get over word order: What are you thinking about? verbs with prepositions and particles together
verbs of movement: she ran in, etc + - verb + verb: auxiliary verbs + - verb + verb: other structures
+ - Be, have and do + - Present Tenses Introduction + - simple present: forms + - simple present: use general time: It always rains in November. not used for things happening just around the present non-progressive verbs talking about the future series of events: demonstrations, commentaries, instructions, stories how long? present tenses not used
+ - present progressive present progressive: forms use: 'around now' repeated actions changes talking about the future things that happen all the time: present progressive not used verbs not generally used in progressive forms how long? present tenses not used
+ - stories, commentaries and instructions + - present tenses: advanced points
+ - Talking about the Future Introduction + - going to + - present progressive for future + - simple present for future timetables, etc: The summer term starts … subordinate clauses: when she gets a job instructions: Where do I pay? other cases
+ - will forms use: giving information about the future; predicting conditional use: You'll fall if you're not careful. future events already decided: will not used not used in subordinate clauses: when I arrive
+ - will, going to and present progressive: advanced points present reality predictions: thinking and guessing about the future will and present forms: both possible official arrangements: The Princess will meet the President at 14.30. predictions as orders: The regiment will attack at dawn. different meanings of will you …? expressing certainty about the present or past obligation: shall
future perfect + - future progressive events in progress in the future events that are fixed or expected to happen progressive form with going to
+ - be to + infinitive: I am to …, you are to …, etc plans and arrangements: He is to visit Nigeria. 'fate': We were to meet again. pre-conditions: If we are to get there in time … orders: You are to do your homework. be + passive infinitive: It is not to be removed.
future in the past
+ - Past and Perfect Tenses Introduction + - simple past + - past progressive forms use: What were you doing at eight o'clock? past progressive and simple past: 'background' events not used for repeated actions non-progressive verbs: She said she believed used for shorter, temporary actions and situations special uses
+ - past verb form with present or future meaning after conjunctions, instead of would: If I paid now … distancing in questions, requests, etc: I wondered if … 'past' modals: could, might, would, should past focus on continuing situations: It was such a nice place
+ - present perfect: basic information forms other languages finished events connected with the present time words: ever, before, recently, etc repetition up to now: I've written six emails … continuation up to now: I've known her for years
+ - present perfect or past? + - present perfect or past: advanced points causes and origins: Who gave you that? expectation and reality: You're older than I thought. today, this week, etc always, ever and never present perfect with past time expressions simple past for news American English bad rules (1): 'definite time' bad rules (2): 'finished actions' bad rules (3): 'recent actions' both possible
+ - present perfect progressive forms continuing actions and situations actions and situations that have just stopped repeated actions time expressions: recently, lately, this week, since …, for …, etc not used with finished time expressions how long? present perfect progressive and (simple) present perfect a bad rule
+ - present perfect simple or progressive? + - present perfect or present? + - past perfect: basic information + - past perfect: advanced points past perfect or simple past with after, as soon as, etc unrealised hopes and wishes; things that did not happen past perfect with It was the first/second … that …
+ - past perfect progressive + - This is the first/last …, etc This is the first time, etc tenses with This is the last …, etc
+ - Passives Introduction + - passive structures and verb forms by + agent passive modal structures: It can be done tomorrow. get as passive auxiliary: He got caught. verbs with two objects in the passive + - verbs with prepositions in the passive + - It was thought that … + - He is believed to be … I was asked to send … He is believed to be dangerous. hear, see, make and help preparatory there perfect, progressive and passive infinitives exceptions: wanting and liking
He was considered a genius. My suitcase is packed. + - When do we use passive structures?
+ - Modal Auxiliary Verbs Introduction + - modals: grammar, pronunciation and contractions + - deduction (deciding that something is certain): must, can't, etc statements: Emily must have a problem. negatives: It can't be Emily. need not / does not have to That must have been nice. will indirect speech must and should a British-American difference: can't and must not must: not used for predictions
+ - deduction (deciding that something is probable): should, ought to, etc + - chances: may, might and could You may be right; We may go climbing. may, might and could: the difference questions: may not used two negatives: may/might not and can't might meaning 'would perhaps' indirect speech: might/could past: might/could + infinitive not used may/might/could have …: She may have missed her train. might/could have …: You might/could have killed yourself. the difference between may/might/could and should/ought to
+ - may and might: some special uses may in wishes and hopes may/might … but may/might as well
+ - strong obligation: must, will statements: I really must stop smoking. questions: Must I …? negatives: You mustn't/can't … mustn't and needn't / don't have to past necessity and obligation: They had to work very hard. orders with will: Will you be quiet! indirect speech: He said I must stop. must and should
+ - strong obligation: have (got) to meaning: obligation, certainty grammar: with or without do; got pronunciation of have to; gotta
+ - have (got) to and must + - weaker obligation: should and ought to use past use: should have … ought: forms
+ - weaker obligation: had better expectations: supposed to + - willingness: will, can announcing decisions: I'll answer it. refusals: I won't do it! promises and threats: I'll phone you tonight. offers: Can I carry your bag?
+ - instructions and requests: will, would, can, could, might, shall instructions, requests and suggestions: will, would, can, could, might asking for instructions and decisions: shall criticisms: You could have told me …
+ - permission: can, could, may, might, be allowed to asking for, giving and refusing permission: Can I …? talking about permission: Can everybody …? past permission: could is not always possible indirect speech be allowed to
+ - ability: can and could knowledge, skill, strength, etc: I can read Italian. possible in the situation: We can go to Paris. past: She could read when she was four. past: could is not always possible other uses of could could have … chances: Will it happen? / Is it happening? – can not used
+ - ability: advanced points + - can and could with see, hear, etc see, hear, feel, smell, taste guess, tell understand, follow, remember
be able to + - typical behaviour: can, could, may, might, will, would can, could, may and might will and would criticisms: She will fall in love with the wrong people.
+ - typical behaviour: used to + infinitive
+ - Infinitives, -ing forms and Past Participles Introduction infinitives: introduction + - infinitives: forms progressive infinitive: (to) be …ing perfect infinitive: (to) have + past participle passive infinitive: (to) be + past participle combinations: to have been sitting; could have been killed negative forms: Try not to be late. to split infinitive: to really understand
+ - use of perfect infinitives: glad to have left + - infinitives without to: I saw you come in. after modal auxiliary verbs after let, make, hear, etc after why (not) after and, or, except, but, than, as and like after do
+ - infinitive as subject or complement + - -ing forms: introduction 'participles and 'gerunds' perfect, passive and negative -ing forms 'participles' and 'gerunds': an unclear difference
+ - -ing form as subject, object or complement Smoking is bad for you. -ing form with its own object the opening of Parliament; my smoking object forms: Do you mind me smoking? It's nice being with you. nouns and -ing forms
infinitive or -ing form? + - participles: -ing and -ed forms used like adjectives names active and passive participles and adjectives: interested and interesting, etc active past participles: a fallen leaf; advanced students compound structures: English-speaking Canadians after nouns: the people questioned differences of meaning much admired; very frightened frightened by / frightened of special past participle forms: drunken laughter
+ - Infinitives, -ing forms and Past Participles after Nouns, Verbs, etc Introduction infinitives after verbs: It's beginning to rain. verb + object + infinitive: I want you to listen. + - try and …, go and …, etc + - -ing forms after verbs: I enjoy travelling. verbs that can be followed by -ing forms verb + object + -ing form: I dislike people telling me … -ing form with passive meaning: Your hair needs cutting. -ing form or infinitive
+ - infinitives after adjectives: pleased to see you reactions and feelings: pleased to see you other adjectives: certain to win superlatives, etc: the oldest athlete to win … easy to please
+ - infinitives after nouns and pronouns: my decision to leave nouns related to verbs: no wish to change nouns related to adjectives: You were a fool to agree. purpose: a key to open the door enough, too much, etc infinitive with preposition: a friend to play with the life to come, etc
+ - -ing forms after nouns and adjectives: tired of listening + - -ing forms after prepositions: without breaking eggs + - infinitives or -ing forms: both possible with different uses remember and forget go on regret advise, allow, permit and forbid see, watch and hear try mean learn and teach like, love, hate and prefer begin and start attempt, intend, continue, can't bear, be accustomed to, be committed to -ing form or infinitive of purpose: stop afraid sorry certain and sure interested
+ - active and passive infinitive with similar meaning obligation to be seen/found/congratulated, etc nothing to do and nothing to be done, etc
+ - causative structures with make object + infinitive make oneself understood, etc with object + object complement: make people welcome, etc
+ - causative and similar structures with get causative: Don't get him talking. causative: Get Penny to help us. causative: get something done experience: We got our roof blown off. Get the children dressed.
+ - causative and similar structures with have causative: have somebody do/doing something causative: have something done experience: have something happen/happening experience: We had our roof blown off. I won't have …
+ - hear, see, etc + object + verb form
+ - Infinitives, -ing forms and Past Participles: Other Uses Introduction + - infinitives after question words: who to …, etc indirect questions: Tell us what to do. direct questions: What shall we do? titles: What to do if fire breaks out.
+ - infinitive of purpose: I sat down to rest. I sat down to rest. in order to; so as to
+ - for … to … infinitive with its own subject use after adjectives: anxious for us to see … It's impossible for … to … after nouns: It's a good idea for us to … something for me to do after verbs: ask for … to … after too and enough as subject for there to be that-clauses
+ - infinitives: other uses + - participle clauses structures after nouns: the people invited to the party adverbial clauses: Putting down my paper, I … misrelated participles: Looking out of the window, the mountains … participle clauses with their own subjects participle clauses after conjunctions and prepositions object complements
+ - Nouns and Noun Phrases; Agreement Introduction + - spelling of plurals plural of nouns ending in consonant + y plural of nouns ending in -sh, -ch, -s, -x or -z plural of nouns ending in -o
+ - irregular and special plurals + - pronunciation of plurals nouns ending in /s/, /z/ and other sibilants nouns ending in other unvoiced sounds nouns ending in other voiced sounds plurals with irregular pronunciation
+ - countable and uncountable nouns: basic information the difference problems travel and a journey; a piece of advice materials: glass, paper, etc fruit, rice, wheat, spaghetti, hair; vegetables, peas, grapes abstract nouns: time, life, experience, etc illnesses
+ - countable and uncountable nouns: advanced points 20 square metres of wall not much difference in all weathers; on your travels a/an with uncountable nouns: a first-class knowledge plural uncountables: the groceries; the customs
+ - piece- and group-words: a blade of grass; a bunch of flowers noun + complement: What can follow a noun? + - possessives: noun + 's (forms) + - nouns in combination: my father's house possessive 's and other determiners meanings of the 's structure 's not used: the name of the street like a subject measurement of time: a day's journey other expressions of time: yesterday's news worth possessive without a noun
+ - nouns in combination: milk chocolate milk chocolate; chocolate milk the first noun is singular: a shoe shop measurement: a five-litre can exceptions: first noun plural – a clothes shop articles more than two nouns pronunciation spelling other structures
+ - classifying expressions: noun + noun or preposition structure? classifying expressions: a sheepdog containers: a matchbox; a box of matches units, selections and collections: piece, group, etc 'made of': a silk dress; silken skin
+ - classifying expressions with 's: a child's toy; cow's milk noun + 's + noun: children's clothes; a bird's nest noun + 's + noun: cow's milk; a hen's egg parts: a man's leg; a table leg pronunciation
+ - singular expressions with plural verbs + - plural expressions with singular verbs + - mixed singular and plural: other structures one of the few women who have climbed Everest A serious problem is wasps. singular subject, plural continuation, plural verb co-ordinated subjects: A and B, A or B, A as well as B, etc who and what here's, there's and where's another, a/an + adjective kind, sort and type every (frequency) fractions
+ - distributive plural: Tell them to bring raincoats. + - turning verbs into nouns: a cough, a taste using nouns for actions common structures
+ - Determiners: a/an and the; my, your, etc; this, that, etc Introduction + - articles: introduction What are articles? What are articles used for? How much do articles matter? speakers of Western European languages speakers of other languages
+ - articles: basic information (A) talking in general: Life is complicated. talking about jobs, types, etc: She's a dentist.
+ - articles: basic information (B) + - more about the the = 'you know which one(s)' the = 'the only one(s) around' superlatives: I'm the oldest. the meaning 'the well-known' possessives and demonstratives proper nouns (names) things in general pronunciation
+ - more about a/an countable and uncountable nouns a/an with singular countable nouns uses of a/an when a/an cannot be left out when a/an is not used: adjectives alone; possessives a/an and the a and an: the difference
+ - no article with plural and uncountable nouns a/an not used confusing nouns some and any the
+ - the difference between some/any and no article + - talking in general + - the: difficult cases groups: nurses or the nurses; railways or the railways? French painters; the Impressionists 1960s music; the music of the 1960s physical environment: the town, the sea on the bus; at the gym She kicked him on the knee.; He sat at the side.
+ - special rules and exceptions common expressions without articles: in bed; at school double expressions: with knife and fork possessive 's noun modifiers both and all kind of, etc amount and number man and woman days, months and seasons musical instruments (the) radio, (the) cinema, (the) theatre and television jobs and positions: He was elected President. addressing people: Good morning, children. exclamations: What a …! illnesses parts of the body, etc measurements: by the hour; twice a week place names newspapers and magazines abbreviated styles
+ - possessive determiners: my, your, etc What kind of words are they? one's and whose not used with other determiners distributive use: She told them to open their books, etc articles instead of possessives: a pain in the head spelling: its, whose
+ - this and that + - this/that and it: things that have just been mentioned referring back more than one thing focus referring forward
+ - Determiners: Quantifiers Introduction + - all: introduction three or more items all (of) with noun phrases and pronouns with the subject or the verb all without a noun all with adjectives, adverbs, etc: all alone
+ - all (of) with noun phrases and pronouns all with the verb: We can all swim. + - all, everybody/everyone and everything + - all and whole + - every (one) every + singular every one of every one without a noun negative structures every + plural noun everybody, etc everyday common expressions
+ - every and all every with singular nouns; all with plurals every not used with determiners all with uncountables all day and every day, etc
+ - each each + singular each of position with object without a noun with the verb
+ - each and every: the difference + - both + - either either + singular either of without a noun pronouns either side/end pronunciation
+ - neither neither + singular noun neither of + plural neither used alone pronunciation
+ - some meaning: indefinite quantity/number pronunciation some and any some and a/an when some is not used some and some of; some with no following noun contrast with others, etc an unknown person or thing some party! with numbers
+ - any any = 'it doesn't matter who/which/what' + - some and any: the main differences any and every: the difference + - no, none and not a/any + - no one and none + - much and many + - more more (of) more without a noun one more, etc more as an adverb
+ - most + - (a) little and (a) few + - less and fewer + - least and fewest the least as determiner: superlative of little 'any … at all' the fewest as determiner: superlative of few (the) least with adjectives: the opposite of (the) most or (the) …est least as adverb at least not in the least
+ - enough enough + noun without a noun
+ - quantifying expressions: a lot, lots, a great deal, the majority, etc introduction; use of of a lot of and lots of plenty of a great deal of, a large amount of and a large number of the majority of not used with measurement nouns use without following nouns
+ - Pronouns Introduction + - personal pronouns: basic information terminology and use subject and object forms: I and me, he and him, etc other uses of object forms: It was her. Personal pronouns cannot be left out. One subject is enough. personal and relative pronouns: one or the other, not both it referring to nothing, the situation, etc it as 'empty' subject: It's ten o'clock. it used to identify we women, you men
+ - personal pronouns: advanced points Jack and me went; between you and I; us women understand as, than, but and except + me or I It is/was me that … / I who … mixed subject and object: It's for him to decide. inclusive and exclusive we us meaning 'me' Poor you! you: different singular and plural forms he/she who … politeness leaving out personal pronouns
+ - singular they possessive pronouns: mine, yours, etc a friend of mine, etc + - reflexive pronouns: myself, etc What are reflexive pronouns? use: I cut myself shaving. same clause after prepositions: She took her dog with her. emphatic use: Do it yourself. reflexives used instead of personal pronouns by oneself -selves and each other / one another own reflexives not used
+ - reciprocal pronouns: each other and one another no difference not used as subject each other's / one another's -selves, possessives and each other / one another words used without each other / one another
+ - somebody, someone, anybody, anyone, etc + - one, you and they: used for people in general one and you: meaning one and you: formality and class one and you: only used in generalisations people including the speaker/hearer one/you as subject, object, etc they
+ - one (substitute word): a big one use a … one ones uncountable nouns which (one), this (one), etc not used after my, etc, some, several, a few, both or a number that of noun modifiers One(s) always refers back.
+ - Adjectives Introduction + - adjectives: normal position two positions adjectives used only before nouns adjectives used only after verbs verb + object + adjective
+ - order of adjectives description before classification: an old political idea opinion before description: a wonderful old house order of descriptive words numbers noun modifiers after adjectives commas after a verb
+ - adjectives with and after a verb before a noun and not used nice and …
+ - adjectives after nouns and pronouns fixed phrases: Secretary General; court martial available, possible, etc present, proper expressions of measurement: two metres high adjectives with complements: people skilled in design something, everything, etc
adjectives: position after as, how, so, too + - adjectives without nouns well-known groups: the old; the poor adjectives of nationality: the Irish; the Dutch singular examples: the accused abstract ideas: the supernatural choices: White or brown? superlatives: We bought the cheapest.
gradable and non-gradable adjectives measurements: 'marked' and 'unmarked' forms pronunciation of aged, naked, etc What can follow an adjective?
+ - Adverbs and Adverbials Introduction + - adverbs of manner and adjectives + - adverbs or adjectives: confusing cases adjectives ending in -ly: friendly, lively adjectives and adverbs with the same form; adverbs with two forms comparatives and superlatives American English
+ - adverb particles: up, down, back, away, etc adverb particles and prepositions phrasal verbs: give up, break down adverb particles with be: I'm off!
+ - position of adverbials: introduction connecting and comment adverbials + - indefinite frequency, certainty and completeness adverbials of indefinite frequency: usually, often, etc adverbials of certainty: probably, certainly, etc adverbials of completeness: practically, partly, etc longer adverbials: from time to time, etc
focusing adverbials + - mid-position: details What exactly is mid-position? mid-position (details): adverbials with negative verbs mid-position (details): adverbials with emphatic verbs mid-position (details): American English
+ - manner, place and time adverbials modifying adverbials: terribly sorry; right past me
+ - Comparison Introduction + - as … as; as much/many as use negative structures as … as possible, etc pronouns after as as much/many … as emphatic use: as much as 80kg half as … as, etc modification: nearly as … tenses leaving out the second part: twice as long … traditional expressions: as cold as ice
+ - comparative and superlative adjectives comparative and superlative adverbs + - using comparatives and superlatives than the difference between comparatives and superlatives groups with two members double comparatives: fatter and fatter; more and more slowly the … the … than me; than I (am) the happiest man in the world than anybody; the best … ever
+ - much older, by far the oldest, etc much, far, etc with comparatives many more/less/fewer much, by far, quite, etc with superlative noun phrases very with superlatives
+ - comparison: advanced points comparative meaning 'relatively', 'more than average' all/any/none the + comparative three times …er, etc words left out after than the youngest person to … superlatives with or without the
+ - Prepositions Introduction + - prepositions at the ends of clauses introduction wh-questions: What are you looking at? relative clauses: the house I told you about passives: She likes to be looked at. infinitive structures: pleasant to live in exceptions: During which period …? formal structures: With whom …?
+ - prepositions before conjunctions -ing forms and infinitives prepositions before particular words and expressions prepositions after particular words and expressions + - expressions without prepositions discuss, emphasise, enter, marry, lack, resemble and approach next, last, etc days of the week a meaning 'each' What time …?, etc about 'how long' measurement expressions, etc after be (in) this way, etc home place infinitive structures
+ - Basic Clause Types Introduction + - sentence structure: basic word order subject – verb – object/complement preparatory it and there direct and indirect objects questions: auxiliary before subject negatives: auxiliary + not adverbials: possible positions subordinate clauses (who …, after … , if …, because …, that …, etc) prepositions: in what … / what … in
+ - questions: basic rules auxiliary verb before subject: Have you …? do: Do you like …? do not used with other auxiliaries infinitive after do: What does he want? only auxiliary verb before subject Who phoned? / Who did you phone? indirect questions: Tell me when you are leaving. prepositions: What are you talking about?
+ - negative structures: basic rules negative verb forms: auxiliary + not imperatives: Don't worry. infinitives and -ing forms: It's important not to worry. other parts of a clause: not his wife, not before six other negative words: never, seldom, etc question tags: You don't …, do you? 'non-affirmative' words: any, etc
+ - negative questions structure: Doesn't she understand? / Does she not understand? two meanings polite requests, invitations, offers, complaints and criticisms yes and no
+ - negative structures with think, hope, seem, etc + - multiple negatives: I couldn't see nobody. English and other languages nobody and not anybody, etc double and multiple negatives and their meaning dialects … I don't think, etc extra negative in expressions of doubt
ambiguous negatives non-affirmative words: anybody, ever, yet, etc + - exclamations + - imperatives forms and use emphatic imperative: Do sit down. passive imperative: Get vaccinated. do(n't) be subject with imperative: Somebody answer the phone. question tags word order with always and never
+ - let introducing imperatives first person plural imperative: let's … first person singular imperative: let me … third-person imperative: let him …
+ - Conjunctions, Sentences and Clauses Introduction + - putting things together: and, but, or + - not … or; not … nor; and not not used once for two negative ideas two separate negative clauses: not either positive + negative: also / as well / too
+ - emphatic coordination: both … and; (n)either … (n)or; not only both … and either … or neither … nor not only … but also
+ - subordinate clauses: some general points position of subordinate clauses punctuation leaving words out conjunctions in separate sentences one conjunction for two clauses relative pronouns
who, which, what, etc after prepositions + - tense simplification in subordinate clauses reasons for tense simplification present instead of future: I'll write when I have time. present perfect: … when I've finished future in subordinate clauses: … where she will be in case, I hope, I bet, it doesn't matter, etc past instead of would … simplification of perfect and progressive verbs exceptions
+ - subjunctive: that she go, that they be, if I were, etc
+ - Relative Clauses Introduction + - relatives: basic information who, whom and which subject and object that = who/which all that, only … that, etc leaving out object pronouns: the people we met one subject or object is enough whose: a girl whose hair … which referring to a whole clause relative when, where and why
+ - identifying and non-identifying clauses: the tall man who …; Mr Rogers, who … two kinds of relative clause pronunciation and punctuation use of that leaving out object pronouns
+ - whose + - what + - relatives: advanced points double use of relative pronouns relative pronouns as general-purpose connectors who and whom an unsatisfactory rule that for people which as determiner; in which case when, where, etc replaced by that or dropped position of prepositions some of whom, none of which, etc whatever, whoever, etc reduced relative clauses: the girl dancing separating a noun from its relative pronoun agreement of person relative + infinitive: a garden in which to play relative clauses after indefinite noun phrases It was Alice who …; What I need is … somebody I know you'll like a car that I didn't know how fast it could go, etc omission of subject double object older English: who and that which
+ - If Introduction + - ordinary structures + - special structures with past tenses and would + - if I were you + - unreal past situations if + past perfect; would have + past participle could have … and might have … present use: situations that are no longer possible
if only + - if … will results 'If it is true now that …' indirect questions: I don't know if … polite requests: If you will come this way … insistence: If you WILL eat so much …
+ - other points if … happen to if … was/were to if it was/were not for leaving out if: conversational – You want to get in, you pay. leaving out if: formal inversion structures – Had I realised … leaving out words after if if so and if not extra negative: I wonder if we shouldn't … if … then if meaning 'even if' admitting facts with if if meaning 'I'm saying this in case' if meaning 'although'
+ - other structures found in spoken English other words and expressions with similar uses + - unless + - in case and if precautions in case … happen to in case and if in case of
+ - Other Adverbial Clauses Introduction + - after: conjunction + - before: conjunction + - as, when and while: simultaneous events 'backgrounds': as, when or while simultaneous long actions: while; as simultaneous short actions: (just) as; (just) when future reference reduced clauses with when and while
+ - whoever, whatever, etc meaning and use whoever, whichever and whatever: subjects and objects clauses as subjects or objects whenever = 'every time that' whoever, etc … may leaving out the verb: whatever his problems informal uses: short answers whatever meaning 'at all'
+ - no matter who, etc conjunction no matter who, etc and whoever, etc no matter and it doesn't matter no matter what
whether … or … + - as and though: special word order + - than- and as-clauses: leaving out subjects, etc
+ - Noun Clauses, Direct and Indirect Speech Introduction + - direct speech: reporting verbs and word order informal spoken reports: said, thought literary direct speech: ask, exclaim, suggest … I was like …
+ - indirect speech: introduction change of situation pronouns 'here and now' words tenses dropping that
+ - indirect speech: tenses past reporting verbs: He said he didn't like the party. examples of natural tense changes after past reporting verbs would, could, etc: no change I told them I was British. No tense change after He says, I'll tell her, etc
+ - indirect speech: questions and answers word order: I asked where Alice was. no question marks yes/no questions: He asked if … say and tell: answers, not questions
+ - whether and if + - indirect speech: infinitives + - indirect speech: advanced points reporting past tenses reporting present and future tenses modal verbs in indirect speech reporting 'Shall I …?' conditionals negative questions word order with what, who and which She's written I don't know how many books. indirect speech without reporting verbs
+ - that-clauses that as a connector that-clauses in sentences the fact that … preparatory it that-clauses after verbs, nouns and adjectives should in that-clauses: It's important that … should should in that-clauses: It's surprising that … should Who do you wish (that) you'd married? compound conjunctions
+ - leaving out that interrogative (question-word) clauses
+ - Information Structure Introduction + - information structure: normal order and variations normal order: important new information last choosing the right verb choosing the right structure end-weight: It worried me that she hadn't been in touch. changing the order: inversion and fronting separating out what is important: cleft sentences dropping what is unimportant: ellipses
+ - preparatory it: subject It's nice to talk to you. It's probable that we'll be late. It was nice seeing you. It takes … + infinitive if, as if and as though It's amazing the way they work together. preparatory it not possible for complements
+ - preparatory it: object I find it difficult to talk to you. I found it strange being … I would appreciate it if … owe and leave
+ - inversion: auxiliary verb before subject + - inversion: full verb before subject + - fronting: This question we have already discussed. + - cleft sentences: It was my secretary who … + - cleft sentences: What I need is a rest. What I need is … the place where …; the day when …; the reason why … emphasising verbs: What he did was … emphasising a whole sentence: What happened was that … other structures
+ - ellipsis (leaving words out): introduction replies structures with and, but and or at the beginning of a sentence at the end of a noun phrase at the end of a verb phrase infinitives comparative structures with as and than question-word clauses that and relative pronouns reduced relative structures: the tickets available, etc be after conjunctions prepositions pronouns after prepositions abbreviated styles
+ - ellipsis with and, but and or + - ellipsis at the beginning of a sentence words that can be left out unstressed forms of be, will, would, have before pronouns: You ready? Dutch, aren't you?
+ - ellipsis in noun phrases ellipsis after adjectives: boiled, please ellipsis after this, numbers, possessives, etc well-known names other situations
+ - ellipsis after auxiliary verbs auxiliary instead of complete verb phrase short answers, etc: Yes, I have. so am I, etc ellipsis before complete form: If you can, call me … more than one auxiliary: I could have been. substitution with do: He might do.
+ - ellipsis: infinitives
+ - Written Texts Introduction + - formality + - pronouns and other proforms + - linking with conjunctions and adverbials the difference but and however position one-clause sentences
+ - discourse markers in writing + - reading complicated structures complex noun phrases: premodification complex noun phrases: postmodification nominalisation and coordination: Daniel's failure clause subjects: getting up early Why do these structures make reading difficult? breaking things up leaving out that: people Martin knew well reduced relative clauses: the objects recovered embedded adverbial clauses heavy indirect object complicated negative structures reporting expressions: the man who Anna had said would tell us more examples
paragraphs + - repetition avoidance of repetition deliberate repetition literary examples
+ - academic writing correspondence: letters + - correspondence: emails, text messages, etc + - abbreviated styles + - headlines special language grammar vocabulary
+ - punctuation: full stop, question mark and exclamation mark sentence division abbreviations indirect questions
+ - punctuation: colon explanations lists subdivisions capitals letters direct speech
+ - punctuation: semi-colon instead of full stops in lists
+ - punctuation: comma the basic sentence before and after the basic sentence inside the basic sentence noun phrases sentences with conjunctions indirect speech between grammatically separate sentences conjunctions and adverbs commas between adjectives lists numbers
punctuation: dash + - punctuation: quotation marks direct speech special use of words
+ - Speech and Spoken Exchanges Introduction + - spoken sentence structure spacing out information: a course with three levels, it's carefully put together fronting and topicalisation: Your friend Alex, now he speaks German. tags: They work very hard, most of them. emphasising tags: You've gone mad, you have.
avoiding repetition: Wonderful, isn't it? + - discourse markers in speech declarative questions: That's the boss? + - rhetorical questions: Who cares? + - echo questions: She's invited how many? + - question tags: basic information What are question tags? negative after affirmative, and vice versa auxiliaries negative words meaning and intonation requests: You couldn't …, could you?
+ - question tags: advanced points aren't I? imperatives: Come in, won't you? Let's …, shall we? There's …, isn't there? it and they with nothing, nobody, somebody, etc non-auxiliary have 'same-way' question tags: You're getting married, are you? ellipsis: Nice day, isn't it? I (don't) think simpler question tags
reply questions: Was it? Did you, dear? short answers: Yes, he can, etc + - so am I, neither do they, etc so + auxiliary + subject neither do I, I can't either, etc so + subject + auxiliary: So it is!
+ - politeness: using questions + - politeness: distancing verb forms past tenses: How much did you want to spend? progressives: I'm hoping … future: You'll need to … modal verbs: would, could and might conditional and negative expressions
+ - politeness: softening expressions + - pronunciation: stress and rhythm + - pronunciation: intonation + - pronunciation: weak and strong forms
+ - Varieties of English Introduction + - standard English and dialects What is 'standard English'? What is a dialect? pronunciation: dialect and accent; 'received pronunciation' showing accent in writing: 'e's gone 'ome the languages of Britain
+ - correctness slips and mistakes: He works in wildlife conversation. dialect forms: I ain't done nothing. divided usage: different from; different to prescriptive and descriptive rules When do mistakes become correct? a concerted effort
+ - changes in English communicative need influence from other varieties Languages simplify themselves. Small, less important distinctions are confused or disappear. New forms and uses spread through the language. 'Underground' forms become respectable. Mistakes become part of the language. Phonetically weak forms disappear. some more examples of changes in modern British English older English verb forms: Tell me what thou knowest.
+ - American and British English + - other varieties of English
+ - Vocabulary Areas Introduction + - nationalities, countries and regions introduction Examples exceptions
+ - numbers fractions and decimals: two fifths; nought point four before nouns singular or plural verbs telephone numbers Roman numerals cardinal and ordinal numbers: books, chapters, etc; kings and queens centuries floors and: punctuation a and one numbers with determiners eleven hundred, etc billion five hundred, etc without -s British money American money metric and non-metric measures area and volume a and per numbers not used as complements after be spoken calculations example of a spoken calculation
+ - talking about age use of be be + … age prepositions
+ - dates + - telling the time + - names and titles: Daniel; Mr Lewis talking about people talking to people notes on titles
+ - names: Florence, Homer, etc cities classical names artists countries
+ - gender (references to males and females) + - 'social' language + - meals British usage American usage
+ - telephoning + - idioms, collocations and formulaic expressions What are idioms? break even; a can of worms verbs with particles or prepositions: bring up; look after collocations: burning desire; blazing disagreement formulaic expressions: Sorry I kept you waiting. using idioms, collocations and fixed expressions.
formal and informal vocabulary + - slang discriminatory and offensive language, taboo words and swear words
+ - Word Formation and Spelling Introduction + - abbreviations + - contractions: I'll, don't, etc general rules alternative contractions position list of contractions
+ - prefixes and suffixes prefixes suffixes that form nouns suffixes that form nouns or adjectives suffixes that form adjectives suffixes that form adverbs suffixes that form verbs combining forms negative words with no positive equivalent productivity
+ - -ic and -ical + - apostrophes missing letters possessives special plurals
capital letters + - hyphens -ise and -ize -able and -ible + - -ly + - final e + - doubling final consonants doubling before vowels Which consonants are doubled? only at the end of a word one consonant after one vowel letter only stressed syllables exception: final l in unstressed syllables other exceptions final c Why double?
+ - y and i changing y to i exceptions no change before i no change after a vowel changing ie to y
ch and tch, k and ck ie and ei + - spelling and pronunciation usually two syllables, not three usually three syllables, not four silent letters a = /e/ ch = /k/ ea = /e/ ea = /eɪ/ gh = /f/ o = /ʌ/ o = /uː/ ou = /ʌ/ u or ou = /ʊ/ words pronounced with /aɪ/ other strange spellings silent r
+ - Word Problems from A to Z Introduction about and on about to about and around + - above and over 'higher than': above or over 'not directly over': above 'covering': over measurements: above ages, speeds, 'more than': over books and papers
accept and agree according to + - across, over and through on/to the other side of (a line): across and over high things: over preferred flat areas: across preferred the adverb over (to) across and through
+ - actual(ly) meaning and use 'false friends'
+ - afraid afraid and fear I'm afraid = 'I'm sorry' not used before a noun
+ - after: adverb shortly after, etc after not used alone
+ - after all two meanings not used for 'finally'
again and back + - ago word order: six weeks ago tenses the difference between ago and for ago and before with time expressions: counting back
agree and accept alike all right and alright + - allow, permit and let + - almost and nearly; practically progress, measurement and counting other meanings never, nobody, nothing, etc everybody, everything, anybody, anything, etc practically
alone, lonely, lonesome and lone along aloud and loudly already, still and yet + - also, as well and too alternate(ly) and alternative(ly) + - although, though, but and however: contrast altogether and all together among and between another and other(s) + - any and no: adverbs + - appear arise and rise + - (a)round and about circular movement, etc: (a)round touring, distribution: round indefinite movement and position approximately
as and like + - as, because, since and for + - as if and as though; like + - as long as tenses conditions emphatic use
as such as usual as well, also and too + - as well as meaning verbs after as well as
+ - ask ask and ask for infinitive structures
+ - at, on and in: place at on in public transport arrive addresses special expressions
+ - at/in and to the difference expressions of purpose targets
+ - at, on and in: time + - at all at all with a negative questions, etc Not at all.
at first and first at last, finally, in the end and at the end + - (a)wake and (a)waken + - back (adverb) and again + - bath and bathe bear beat and win + - because because, as, since and for + - become, get, go, grow, etc: changes become dark, become a pilot, etc get dark, younger, etc get + infinitive go red, go mad, etc come true, etc grow old, etc turn red, etc fall ill, etc verbs related to adjectives: thicken, brighten, etc no change: stay, keep, remain
been meaning 'come' or 'gone' + - before: adverb 'at any time before now/then' counting back from a past time: eight years before before, before that and first
before (preposition) and in front of + - begin and start + - below, under, underneath and beneath beside and besides + - bet + - better 'recovered' correcting mistakes
+ - between and among + - big, large and great concrete nouns: usually big or large great with concrete nouns abstract nouns: usually great large and wide
birthday and date of birth + - (a) bit + - born and borne borrow and lend + - bring and take bring up and educate Britain, the United Kingdom, the British Isles and England + - broad and wide physical distance abstract meanings
but, although, though and however + - but meaning 'except' use pronouns after but verbs after but but meaning 'only'
+ - by: time not later than other meanings
by and near + - by (method, agent) and with (tools, etc) the difference passive clauses
call can't help + - care: take care (of), care (about) and care for take care of care (about) care for
city and town classic and classical + - close and shut cloth and clothes + - come and go comic and comical complement and compliment (noun and verb) continual(ly) and continuous(ly) + - contrary control + - country countable use uncountable use
date of birth and birthday + - dare uncommon negative use; daren't special expressions
dead, died and death + - different disinterested divorce + - do: general-purpose verb; do and make do for indefinite activities do for work do …ing make for constructing, creating, etc do instead of make common fixed expressions
doubt down + - dress noun verb: putting clothes on verb: wearing clothes
drown due to and owing to during and for during and in early, soon and quickly + - east and eastern, north and northern, etc economic and economical educate and bring up efficient and effective elder and eldest electric and electrical + - else use word order else's singular only or else elsewhere
+ - end and finish: verbs both used completing an activity changes -ing forms
England, Britain, the United Kingdom and the British Isles enjoy + - enough adjective/adverb + enough enough + noun position with adjective + noun enough + infinitive; structure with for It's small enough to put in your pocket, etc the = enough; leaving out enough
+ - especial(ly) and special(ly) especially and specially especially meaning 'above all' especially before prepositions and conjunctions specially with past participles especial and special
+ - even meaning position even and also even if and even though even so; even now
eventual(ly) + - ever ever meaning 'at any time' with comparatives, superlatives, as and only ever + perfect ever and before; ever before ever meaning 'always'
ever so, ever such + - except and except for except for before nouns except (for) after all, any, etc except before prepositions and conjunctions except (for) + pronoun except + verb: He does nothing except eat. except and without
+ - expect, hope, wait and look forward expect and hope: difference of meaning expect and wait: difference of meaning look forward: meaning all four expressions compared prepositions simple and progressive forms that-clauses expect: other points
experiment and experience explain facing, opposite and in front of + - fairly, quite, rather and pretty: adverbs of degree + - far and a long way far in questions and negatives far in affirmative clauses far with comparatives, etc before a noun: a far country
+ - farther and further + - feel linking verb: I feel fine. linking verb: That feels nice! linking verb: feel like; feel as if/though feel like meaning 'want' reactions and opinions 'receive physical sensations' 'touch'
female and feminine; male and masculine + - finally, at last, in the end and at the end finally at last in the end at the end
finish and end finished first and at first fit and suit + - for: purpose and cause for, as, because and since for and during + - for, since, in and from: time forget and leave from and since: time fun and funny further and farther game and play + - get: basic structures and meanings get + noun/pronoun: I got an email. get + adjective: getting old get + adverb particle or preposition: get out get + past participle: get washed, dressed, married, etc get …ing; get + infinitive got and gotten
get and go: movement get, become, go, grow, etc: changes + - give with action nouns go and come go and get: movement go, become, get, grow, etc: changes go/come for a … + - go/come …ing go …ing come …ing prepositions
gone with be grateful and thankful great, big and large grow, become, get, go, etc: changes + - half half (of) no following noun the half half a and a half one and a half
happen to … hardly, scarcely and no sooner + - hear and listen (to) hear, see, etc with that-clause help here and there + - high and tall + - hire, rent and let historic and historical holiday and holidays + - home + - hope hope, expect, wait and look forward hopefully + - how use and word order with adjectives/adverbs: how, not how much comparisons: how not used how, what and why how much, how many, how old, how far, etc the way
+ - how and what … like? however, although, though and but if and when ill and sick immediately, the moment, etc: conjunctions in, at and on: place in, at and on: time in and during in and for: time + - in and into, on and onto: prepositions position and direction in and on for movement into for change in and on as adverbs
in and later in/at and to indifferent in front of and before in front of and opposite in order that and so that in spite of in the end, at the end, at last and finally + - indeed very … indeed indeed with verb
+ - instead and instead of preposition: instead of instead of and without adverb: instead
its and it's + - it's time journey, travel, trip and voyage + - just kind of, sort of and type of + - know know how + infinitive object + infinitive tenses know and know about/of know and find out, etc I know and I know it
large, great and big + - last, the last, the latest last week, month, etc; the last week, month, etc the last three …, etc the last in a series latest and last
later and in + - lay and lie lay lie (irregular) lie (regular) dialect forms
+ - learn leave and forget left lend and borrow lesser lest + - let let, allow and permit let, rent and hire lie and lay life: countable or uncountable noun + - like: verb not used in progressive forms not used without an object very much: position like …ing: enjoyment like + infinitive: choices and habits would like if you like, etc
+ - like and as: similarity, function like (similarity): like me as (similarity): as I do like I do (informal) inverted word order: as did all his family as you know, etc comparison with as and like after negatives function or role: He worked as a waiter.
like and as if + - likely listen (to) and hear little and small lonely and alone (a) long way and far + - long and (for) a long time long in questions and negatives (for) a long time in affirmative clauses long in affirmative clauses for a long time in negative clauses How long are you here for? comparative
+ - look look (at), see and watch look forward, hope, expect and wait lose and loose loudly and aloud magic and magical make: prepositions make and do male and masculine + - marry and divorce the matter (with) maybe and perhaps + - mean + - means + - mind: do you mind, etc + - miss the moment: conjunction name near (to) near and by nearest and next nearly, almost and practically + - need ordinary verb: Everybody needs to rest. modal auxiliary forms: he needn't; need I? needn't, need I?: immediate necessity talking about the future need …ing: The sofa needs cleaning. need not have … need not and must not
+ - next and the next; nearest next week, month, etc; the next week, month, etc the next three …, etc next Sunday, etc place: next and nearest
no and not no doubt no more, not any more, no longer, not any longer no sooner, hardly and scarcely north and northern, etc not and no nought, zero, nil, etc now (that) nowadays of course often on and about on, in and at: place on, in and at: time once: adverb once: conjunction one of … + - only: focusing adverbial + - open open and opened when open is not used
opportunity and possibility opposite (adjective): position + - opposite, facing and in front of + - other(s) and another + - out of over, across and through over and above owing to and due to + - own part perhaps and maybe permit, allow and let place: a place to live, etc + - play and game + - please and thank you requests when please is not used thank you and thanks accepting and refusing replies to thanks
point of view politic and political politics and policy possibility and opportunity practically, nearly and almost prefer presently pretty, fairly, quite and rather price and prize principal and principle quickly, soon and early + - quite two meanings word order with nouns comparisons quite a bit/few/lot, etc not quite
quite, fairly, pretty and rather + - rather: adverb of degree (rather good, etc) meaning word order with articles plural nouns
+ - rather: preference rather, quite, pretty and fairly reason + - remind and remember rent, let and hire (the) rest rise and arise + - road and street the difference street names: stress
+ - (the) same the same (as) other structures
+ - say and tell meaning and use say: objects tell: objects infinitives indirect questions
scarcely, hardly and no sooner school + - see see, hear, etc with that-clause + - see, look (at) and watch + - seem sensible and sensitive shade and shadow shut and close sick and ill + - since: tenses since, for, in and from: time since, as, because and for small and little + - smell British and American forms linking verb transitive verb: 'perceive' transitive verb: 'investigate'
+ - so: adverb meaning 'like this/that' after seem, appear, etc not used in other cases
so (conjunction) and then + - so (degree adverb): so tired, so fast + - so and not with hope, believe, etc + - so with say and tell instead of that-clauses I told you so. other verbs
so and such + - so much and so many + - so that and in order that + - so-and-so; so-so some time, sometime and sometimes + - soon, early and quickly + - sort of, kind of and type of sound south and southern, etc + - speak and talk little difference formality lectures, etc languages other cases
start and begin + - still, yet and already: time street and road + - such word order 'of this/that kind' high degree such and very, great, etc such … that; such … as to such as such-and-such
+ - such and so such before (adjective +) noun so before adjective, adverb, etc
+ - suggest suit and fit suppose, supposing and what if + - surely sympathetic + - take: time The person is the subject: The activity is the subject: The object of the activity is the subject: Preparatory it is the subject: Before/until is used:
take and bring talk and speak tall and high + - taste tell and say thank you thankful and grateful then and so + - there adverb of place introductory subject
there and here + - think 'have an opinion': not progressive other meanings: progressive possible -ing forms think + object (+ to be) + complement transferred negation: I don't think … indirect speech I thought … I had thought …, I should think, etc
though and although through: time through, across and over + - time to and at/in tonight + - too too and very too and too much modification: much too, far too, etc not used before adjective + noun too … + infinitive too salty to drink, etc That's really too kind of you. only too …
too, also and as well + - too much and too many the difference a bit too much, rather too many, etc too much/many without a noun
town and city travel, journey, trip and voyage type of, kind of and sort of (the) United Kingdom, England, Britain and the British Isles + - until until and till until/till and to distance and quantity: until/till not used tenses with until structure with Not until … until and by: states and actions until and before
+ - up, down + - (be) used to meaning structures get used to …ing, etc pronunciation
+ - very and very much adjectives and adverbs: very kind, very quickly not very past participles: very much loved, very worried very much (adverbial)
voyage, journey, travel and trip wait wait, hope, expect and look forward wake(n) and awake(n) + - want want and will + - -ward(s) adjectives adverbs other words
watch, look (at) and see + - way welcome + - well well and good well = 'in good health' I'm good.
west and western, etc what if what … like and how what, which and who: question words when and if where (to) + - which, what and who: question words which and what: the difference determiners: which and what which of without nouns: who for people
+ - who and whom who ever, what ever, etc + - whose: question word with a noun or alone prepositions
whose and who's + - why and why not replies Why should …? infinitive structures
wide and broad will and want win and beat + - wish + - with trembling with rage, blue with cold, etc angry with, etc with meaning 'against' accompanying circumstances and reasons possession clothing, voices, transport, etc
with and by + - worth + - yes and no answers to negatives contradicting
yet, still and already: time zero
|